Sports and Exercise Science BSc Hons - 2019 Entry

Course Overview

Lancaster University’s innovative BSc Sports and Exercise Science is one of the first in the UK to be delivered by a medical school. Lancaster Medical School is recognised for its subject expertise, supportive community and satisfied students. This is your chance to study sports and exercise science within an academically rigorous environment and to combine scientific knowledge with professional practice.

You will explore the science behind human performance in sports, exercise and health. The course balances scientific focus with employability, so you will study anatomy, physiology, biomechanics and psychology alongside subjects such as nutrition, digital technologies in sport and exercise, public health challenges, and how to become a sports and exercise scientist. Plus you can tailor your degree to your personal and professional interests through a range of elective modules, such as entrepreneurship and sport and exercise related medicine.

The mix of lectures, workshops and laboratory sessions also includes valuable experience of sports and exercise science research. You may find yourself analysing warm-up strategies to prevent injury, developing effective training and nutritional approaches for high-performing athletes, or assessing the effects of exercise for weight loss in obese people. You will also be encouraged to consider the increasing prominence of exercise and physical activity as part of a healthy lifestyle agenda, and to engage with current debates on public health and disease management.

You will be taught by Lancaster Medical School’s research-active academics with expertise in sports and exercise science, plus specialists ranging from bioscientists and clinicians, to sports nutritionists and public health experts. Facilities at Lancaster Medical School will include the new, custom-built Human Performance Laboratory, where you will become competent in using high-specification equipment and engage in your own research. You will learn anatomy using life-size models from the Clinical Anatomy Learning Centre and benefit from access to Lancaster University’s bioscience teaching laboratories.

Using our state-of-the-art equipment, you will gain the skills to capture and analyse physiological and biomechanical data to better understand human performance and activity. You will learn how to act to enhance performance and activity - whether for competition or disease management - and how to provide feedback to an athlete, a patient or member of the general public.

The degree content covered in Year 1 allows you to complete a Level 2 Certificate in Gym Instructing and a Level 3 Diploma in Personal Training from Active IQ – one of the UK’s leading awarding organisations for the active leisure, learning and wellbeing sector. This enables you to become a qualified fitness professional at the end of your first year and gain experience of working with people in an exercise and fitness environment over the following two years of your degree, boosting your employability.

In Year 3, you will make a unique contribution to sports and exercise science research and undertake a research project on a topic of your choosing. You will also finalise your professional practice programme by delivering a sport and exercise science-based event. 

Entry Requirements

Grade Requirements

A Level AAB

Required Subjects A level grade B in one science from the following; Applied Science, Biology, Chemistry, Further Mathematics, Life and Health Sciences, Mathematics, Physical Education, Physics, Psychology, Sports Science.

GCSE Mathematics grade B or 5, English Language grade C or 4

IELTS 6.5 overall with at least 6.0 in each component. For other English language qualifications we accept, please see our English language requirements webpages.

Other Qualifications

International Baccalaureate 35 points overall with 16 points from the best 3 Higher Level subjects including one science subject at HL grade 6

BTEC Distinction, Distinction, Distinction in Sport or Sport and Exercise Science

We welcome applications from students with a range of alternative UK and international qualifications, including combinations of qualification. Further guidance on admission to the University, including other qualifications that we accept, frequently asked questions and information on applying, can be found on our general admissions webpages.

Contact Admissions Team + 44 (0) 1524 592028 or via ugadmissions@lancaster.ac.uk

Course Structure

Many of Lancaster's degree programmes are flexible, offering students the opportunity to cover a wide selection of subject areas to complement their main specialism. You will be able to study a range of modules, some examples of which are listed below.

Year 1

Core

• Becoming a Sports and Exercise Scientist

  This wide-ranging module provides an engaging introduction to Sports and Exercise Science, including its history, growth and future. It’s your chance to learn about the overarching role of Sports and Exercise Science in public health, disease management, elite performance, and recreational sports and activities.

  You will gain an awareness of research, professionalism and potential career opportunities as we educate, excite and inspire you. As you embark on your academic and career journey within this exciting field we’ll also ensure that you understand and adhere to professional conduct.

  We will highlight the connections between the Sports and Exercise Science disciplines and modules on offer at the University, helping you to take an integrated but multidisciplinary approach to both your degree and your professional development.

  The lecture series is accompanied by in-depth workshops based around three topics (the role of Sports and Exercise Science, professional training, and research approaches). The combination of lectures, workshops, and Human Performance Lab sessions provides you with your first insight into Lancaster’s various learning environments and to the way we will put theory into practice. The Human Performance Lab sessions will focus on working safely in the Sport and Exercise Sciences.

  Guest speakers will engage in the module delivery and you’ll gain an awareness of professional organisations and training. Keeping up-to-date with developments and research within the field is key, so you will also review current information and engage in evidence-based contemporary debates as you build your academic skills. And you’ll prepare, process, interpret and present findings - all of which helps you to refine your skills in assessing and responding to research.

  Throughout the module you will complete a weekly online test, which will help you to spot any gaps in your learning and to feel good about the knowledge that you’ve already secured.

• Cell Structure and Function

  This module is an introduction to the structure and function of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. The first five lectures of the module will examine the main components of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and the way eukaryotic cells are organized into tissues. The techniques used to study cells will also be reviewed. The next two lectures will look in detail at the structure and function of mitochondria and chloroplasts and the chemiosmotic theory. This will be followed by a lecture on the way cells are organised into tissues. The final four lectures will cover reproduction in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and the eukaryotic cell cycle. The lectures are supplemented by two practical sessions, the first on light microscopic technique and the second covering organelle isolation

• Concepts in Sports and Exercise Psychology

  How does a tennis player who is behind in a match keep focussed and fight back to win the match? Why do 100m sprinters visualise in their mind the race they are about to take part in? Why is breaking a bad habit, perhaps not taking exercise, so difficult?

  These are important questions in Sports and Exercise Science and in this module you’ll get a chance to explore these topics as you examine theories of behaviour change along with studying motivation, visualisation and the effects of pressure on athletic performance.

• Digital Technologies in Sports and Exercise Science

  In recent years there has been an explosion in the amount of data being captured in sport and as part of training and exercise regimes. An increasing number of people use activity trackers to monitor their daily steps, flights of stairs climbed or calories burned. As people capture these data many store it using cloud based services such as Strava.

  In this module you’ll learn about the ways to capture these biometric data, how reliable the data are and what can be done with the data once it’s been captured.

• Essentials of Sports and Exercise Physiology

  This interactive and engaging module is your chance to get to grips with human physiology in the context of sports and exercise. Combining a lecture series with sessions in the Human Performance Lab, we will balance theory and practice to develop your understanding of one central theme: how the human body works and responds to exercise and sporting activity.

  We will explore the role of the cardiovascular, respiratory, renal and musculoskeletal systems, and how they work to maintaining homeostasis (a stable internal environment – body temperature, water content, carbon dioxide level, and blood sugar level). We’ll also consider the ways in which physiological monitoring and analysis can be used to understand how these systems respond and adapt to the demands of different modes of exercise.

  During your time in the Human Performance Lab, you will carry out resting, submaximal and maximal tests using treadmills and static cycle ergometers. You will use heart rate monitors to evaluate workload, gas analysers to determine oxygen uptake, and blood sampling to assess changes in lactate levels. These tests will reveal the ways that performance is limited by physiology, and they will generate the data that you’ll use in your coursework assessment.

  By the end of the module you will know what the requirements are for carrying out physiological measurements and tests, how to record data from those tests, and, how to manipulate, analyse and present that data.

  Throughout the module you will complete a weekly online test, which will help you to spot any gaps in your learning and to feel good about the knowledge that you’ve already secured. Your practical skills will be observed and you’ll complete a competency workbook throughout your degree.

• Exercise Prescription

  This practical module provides an opportunity to draw the first year modules together and will set you up well for sport and exercise related employment throughout your time at Lancaster, and ensure you have exercise training and prescription experience on your CV before graduation. We have collaborated with Active iQ, the UK’s leading awarding body for professional fitness qualifications, and their vocational material and assessments are embedded into our research-informed teaching in order to give each student the opportunity to gain a Level 2 Gym Instructor and plans for a Level 3 Personal Trainer award. Interactive and highly applied lectures will provide you with the opportunity to learn the underpinning theory and associated research surrounding the key components of exercise programming, training principles and techniques. Each of these will be followed by practical workshops, mostly within the Lancaster University fitness suite alongside qualified fitness professionals to hone your skills in instruction, delivery, adaptability and progression of a programme. This gives you a genuine opportunity to put theory into practice.

  Throughout the module, you will complete a weekly online test, which will help you to spot any gaps in your learning and to feel good about the knowledge that you have already secured. You will also complete a competency checklist and practical observation to assess your skills in line with the fitness qualification. Early in the degree programme you will select a friend or family member to be your case study for this module, where you will design and deliver an evidence-based and individualised exercise programme.

• Experimental Design and Data Analysis

  In this module students will be introduced to the basic principles of experimental research design. We familiarise students with the principals underpinning the statistical analysis of quantitative data using examples from experimental studies in practice. We also offer students the opportunity to use basic statistics to analyse experimental data using statistical software (IBM SPSS). These practical sessions give students an opportunity to acquire data analysis skills. We cover the logic behind generating and testing hypotheses in experimental design and provide students with guidance on how to critically appraise published experimental research. Students will gain an appreciation of the importance of experimental design in the study of human health; develop team-working skills; develop skills in self-directed learning using a virtual learning environment; experience the use of statistical software for performing statistical calculations; develop an ability to summarise and critique information from different sources in a coherent manner along with an understanding of how to report statistical results.

• Fundamental Anatomy

  This fascinating module reveals anatomical terminology and the science behind the structure and function of the human body, which will be related to the context of sport and exercise and also provides the foundation knowledge you need for the physiology and biomechanics modules.

  Taught sessions will combine a lecture series and interactive workshops to provide you with a good balance of theoretical and practical understanding. As your degree is based in the Lancaster Medical School, you will have access to our Clinical Anatomy Learning Centre. You will benefit from this highly resourced facility where you will enjoy an active learning approach with life-size models of skeletons and human organs, and enhance your knowledge and understanding of normal anatomy with the large catalogue of digital material. This will provide the underpinning knowledge for when you learn about anatomical changes in response to exercise, training or disease later in the degree.

  You will journey through the nervous, musculoskeletal, cardiovascular and respiratory systems, learning the detail of each as you go. You will consider key questions such as: what are the types of bone joints and how do they make different movements possible? Which muscles are involved in upper and lower body movements? How do nerves control muscle contraction? And how do the heart and lungs work together to ensure oxygen can be delivered efficiently? In the course of answering them, you will prepare, process, interpret and present data, and you’ll refine your skills in assessing information from a variety of sources.

  Throughout the module you will complete a weekly online test, which will help you to spot any gaps in your learning and to feel good about the knowledge that you’ve already secured.

• Hormones and Development

  The aim of this module is to introduce students to the mechanisms cells use to communicate with one another.

  The structure and functions of several endocrine (hormone-producing) glands are investigated in lectures and workshops, such as the pituitary, thyroid and adrenal glands. The hormonal control of human reproduction is explained, followed by investigating the topic of fertilisation. Early embryogenesis is compared in a variety of organisms, supported by a laboratory session which enables a comparison of early embryogenesis in starfish, frog and chick. Finally, human pregnancy, development and fertility are examined with emphasis upon causes and treatment of infertility.

• Introduction to Nutrition

  This exciting module will get you to grips with the foundations of general and sport nutrition, providing you with the knowledge and skills to analyse and review a real-life diet diary and provide appropriate dietary advice to a self-selected case study.

  Your learning will take place in various environments including lectures; classroom-based workshops where you will discuss dietary assessment methods; computer-based sessions where you will use advanced dietary analysis software; and you will engage in testing blood sugar control in our Human Performance Laboratory.

  This module will complement the Essentials of Sport and Exercise Physiology and the earlier Bioscience modules, as you recognise the impact of foods and fluids on human biochemistry. You will learn how to calculate energy requirements and understand how this differs across different activities and populations in both a sport and health context. As well as providing clear crossover with the Public Health Challenges and digital technologies modules.

  The assessment focal point for this module is the production of a dietary analysis report, where you will produce a diet diary, select a family member or friend to complete it and you will then accurately input, analyse and interpret the data. You will draw on recommendations and client goals to provide an evidence-based justification for your chosen advice. You will complete a weekly online test, which will help you to spot any gaps in your learning and to feel good about the knowledge that you have already secured, ahead of an end of year exam.

• Molecules of Life

  In this module, students will explore the chemistry of some of the most important molecules to life, including water, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, proteins and lipids. The module begins with an overview of basic chemistry for example atomic structure, bonding, pH and molecular shape. It looks at the properties of water and how these enable water to support life. The structure and bonding within nucleic acids, proteins and carbohydrates are explored with emphasis upon how this is related to function within a cell. Finally, the structure and functions of lipids are described, with emphasis upon the role of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates in biological membranes.

  Workshops on this module enable use of RasMol molecular modelling software, making molecular models and problem-based learning.

• Principles of Biomechanics

  This captivating module provides you with a strong grounding in biomechanics within the context of sports and exercise. Combining a lecture series with practical sessions we will balance theory and practice to develop your understanding of one central theme: how and why the human body moves in the way it does and how human movement alters in different sport and exercise activities.

  How do we describe human movement and how do we measure relevant human performance aspects? How can we alter technique to increase the chances of successful performance and reduce the chances of injury? These are some of the core questions examined in this module.

  The lectures cover the mechanical basis of human motion including a thorough introduction to force and the concepts of linear and angular motion. We will also consider the ways in which biomechanical information can be used to understand how human movement adapts to different modes of exercise, and across different populations.

  The workshops will unpick the detail and provide a more hands-on approach to your learning. You will focus on motion in practice, using bespoke biomechanical equipment to carry out tests that reveal force, power and their impact on different sport and exercise activities. These sessions will generate the data that you will use to perfect your reporting skills.

  Throughout the module you will complete a weekly online test, which will help you to spot any gaps in your learning and to feel good about the knowledge that you’ve already secured. Your practical skills will be observed and you’ll complete a competency workbook throughout your degree.

• Professional Practice 1

  Our highly engaging professional practice module is an excellent opportunity to gain an in-depth, inside view of the range of professions and professional activities within the sports and exercise sector. And to develop knowledge of professional bodies (such as the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences), related careers organisations, and external qualifications.

  Working in a group, you will be tasked with creating a plan for a sport and exercise science-based event that outlines everything that is required to make it viable. The professional practice module runs throughout your degree and your plan will continue to develop until the event is delivered in your final year.

  Lectures and workshops will be used to help you break down the process and consider each part of your plan in further depth: project management, communication, financial and commercial decisions, event liaison, legal requirements, marketing, emergency planning, first aid, recovery facilities, and event evaluation. You will also look at the policy and planning, management and delivery of sporting opportunities.

  Sports and exercise professionals will play a central role in helping you to enlarge your plans. They will share their experience and expertise through guest lectures, helping you to consider key issues such as health and safety regulations, risk management strategies, how to attract participants, whether your event is for-profit or not-for-profit, and who you need to work with (from individuals to public bodies) in order to make your event happen.

  Beneficial for your career development, this module builds independent and group study skills and helps you to develop both subject specific and transferable knowledge as well as developing professional networks. It is open to students from other degree programmes within the University and is a fantastic opportunity to take a multi-disciplinary approach to learning and improve your team-building abilities.

  Throughout the module you will complete a reflective log of your learning which will help you appreciate the range of skills and competencies that you have gained.

• Public Health Challenges

  This contemporary module will engage you in some of the hot topics surrounding public health challenges that directly relate to the sport and exercise sciences and complement modules in psychology, nutrition, exercise prescription and digital technology. You will gain a greater awareness and understanding of health inequalities, promoting healthy lifestyles, discussing the challenges faced by obesity, identifying the need to improve mental health and ensure our ageing population live better for longer.

  Taught sessions will consist of interactive lectures and classroom-based seminars where you will be creative and develop your skills for debate and discussion around current and future public health initiatives. Within the Medical School and the wider Faculty of Health and Medicine, you will benefit from expertise in public health and public engagement as Lancaster University moves forward in being a centre for health innovation. You will also enhance your ability to understand epidemiology and interpret statistics associated with disease risk. Putting complex information into simple to understand statements is essential for successful public engagement so this will be a valuable employability skill to add to your CV.

  You will be assessed by creatively designing material to inform the public about particular health challenges and solutions, as well as developing your group presentation skills. Throughout the module, you will complete a weekly online test, which will help you to spot any gaps in your learning and to feel good about the knowledge that you’ve already secured.

Year 2

Core

• Current Debates in Sports and Exercise Science

  This module allows the opportunity for students to engage with hot topics and current debates within the sport and exercise science, across all the core disciplines of physiology, nutrition, psychology and biomechanics. You will develop the skills and confidence to review both sides of a number of controversial topics, build and defend a strong argument in a cohesive learning environment. This provides a dynamic approach to developing the ability read, listen, write and think critically, all of which are key skills for the final year of the degree.

  You may debate on the current athletic doping scandals and build a case for why certain supplements should be removed or added to the banned substance list. You could argue that some Paralympic athletes are at an advantage if they have access to more advanced prosthetic technology. Or, you could get involved in the pros and cons of a new diet craze for rapid weight loss. Although these topics are presented in the media, you will delve into the research that supports different sides to the arguments and be collaborative with your peers for an in-depth learning experience.

  You will be assessed via contributions to an online forum, a short written critical review, and a debate whereby you will present your side of the argument with a partner and participate in some debate activity with your opponent and the audience. A highly valuable and interactive approach that is intended to excite you to want to learn more.

• Physiology and Metabolism

  Following year one modules in physiology and nutrition, this takes your knowledge and application of skills to the next level by focusing on the measurement and evaluation of physiological responses to exercise and related environments. The module will take you beyond stand-alone physiological tests and provide a more experimental approach to your learning and start to apply the content to real-world sport and health scenarios.

  You will delve deeper into energy systems and metabolic processes, find out more about the determinants of exercise performance, fatigue and recover and have fully grasped the integrated nature of exercise physiology to suitably prepare you for final year modules. You will learn how to conduct tests that determine lactate threshold, as well as using multiple different protocols to determine VO2max and investigating the effect of commonly used nutritional supplements. The module will introduce you to a variety of both laboratory and field-based assessments.

  You will further your year one practical skills by continuing to add to your competencies and practical workbook/portfolio and laboratory report writing will have a more experimental focus, showcasing your understanding of protocol selection. The nature of the module will have helped to further develop your ability to analyse data and interpretation, which will feature in the module examination.

• Professional Practice II

  Information for this module is currently unavailable.

• Research Methods and Statistics

  This module equips students with the knowledge, understanding, and skills necessary for successful completion of lab projects in Year 2, and the major research project in Year 3.

  This module will include how to identify different types of data and how to select appropriate statistical tests. This valuable experience is essential for a successful career in Sports Science and is highly translational to alternative careers where statistical analysis is required.

  Your learning will take place in the lecture theatre and computer lab. Each lecture is followed by a computer lab session where you will learn how to use each statistical test first-hand using example data from the field of sport and exercise sciences. You will be assessed through a combination of weekly online multiple-choice tests, to check your knowledge, and an end-of-module-test in the computer lab where you will complete statistical tests on model data.

• Sports and Exercise Psychology

  Information for this module is currently unavailable.

Optional

• Exercise Medicine

  This exciting module applies exercise science and exercise prescription to health and medical conditions. With the growing public health challenge associated with physical inactivity, as well as the convincing evidence that exercise is an effective prevention and treatment strategy, this module will appropriately equip students with the knowledge and skills to work towards a career in the health domain. Lancaster Medical School has a focus on improving population health via innovative methods and this allows Sports and Exercise Science to align closely with the wider vision of the Medicine programme.

  You will learn about the role exercise plays in the prevention of risk factors associated with heart disease, as well as the use of exercise rehabilitation for those recovering from a cardiac event. You will discover how exercise can delay issues with bone health such as the importance of load-bearing activities in people with osteoporosis. You will gain in-depth insights into the pathophysiology, medications and exercise prescription across a wide range of conditions that are high on the UK and Global public health agenda, developing an adapted physical activity programme and engaging with real-life patients to raise awareness of the real-life barriers, facilitators and approaches to exercise medicine.

  You will be engage in lectures, interactive workshops, online forums and even a focus group with patients. Your knowledge and skills will be assessed by online weekly tests, a reflective report, a real-life patient case study and an end of year exam.

• Sports Medicine

  This module will develop knowledge of the injuries and pathologies present within elite Sport and examine prevention and treatment strategies for these conditions.

  This module will include the assessment of sports injuries and how to monitor athletes who may be at risk through overtraining or other underlying pathologies. We will examine the performance benefits, and long-term consequences, of ergogenic aids, and the growing use of therapeutic use exemptions (TUE’s) within Sport.

  Your learning will take place in lectures, workshops, and in the Human Performance Lab. You will be assessed through a combination of weekly online multiple-choice tests, to check your knowledge, a written report in the style of a research paper, and an end-of-year exam.

Year 3

Core

• Research Project

  A crucial part of your degree is the final year project during which you’ll have the opportunity to work with staff to undertake your own research project. You’ll be guided in doing this, and you’ll be able to apply all of the knowledge and skills you’ve developed as you undertake your original research project.

  Your project will allow you to develop your research and time-management skills as well as your presentation and team working skills. In addition it will allow you to undertake an investigation into a topic of your choice.

Lancaster University offers a range of programmes, some of which follow a structured study programme, and others which offer the chance for you to devise a more flexible programme. We divide academic study into two sections - Part 1 (Year 1) and Part 2 (Year 2, 3 and sometimes 4). For most programmes Part 1 requires you to study 120 credits spread over at least three modules which, depending upon your programme, will be drawn from one, two or three different academic subjects. A higher degree of specialisation then develops in subsequent years. For more information about our teaching methods at Lancaster visit our Teaching and Learning section.

Information contained on the website with respect to modules is correct at the time of publication, but changes may be necessary, for example as a result of student feedback, Professional Statutory and Regulatory Bodies' (PSRB) requirements, staff changes, and new research.

Careers

Lancaster University is ranked first in the North West - and third in the UK - for graduate prospects by The Times and Sunday Times Good University Guide 2019.

A BSc Sports and Exercise Science from Lancaster University will open doors to a career in the sports industry or beyond. It could lead to employment in the private and public sectors, including the NHS, local authorities, national sporting associations, sports governing bodies, education, professional sports clubs, public sports and recreation facilities, and the community.

You will benefit from Lancaster Medical School’s excellent connections with clinicians, practitioners, and professionals working in both the health and sports domain; experience of working with athletes and members of the wider community; and opportunities to gain fitness qualifications alongside your degree. All of this will help you to make professional connections, build practical experience, and get a head start on your chosen career.

Potential roles include: exercise physiologist, biomechanist, sports psychologist, strength and conditioning coach, health promotion specialist, personal trainer, performance analyst, and sports development officer. Alternatively, if you wish to continue your education, you could progress to a discipline or career-specific master’s degree in areas such as exercise physiology or subjects allied to sports science, or to a PhD and a career in research.

You will also develop the transferable skills that all employers seek - the ability to think critically, communicate, work in teams, carry out your own research, competently analyse data, operate in a commercially aware manner, plan strategically and demonstrate technical fluency. The wide scope of Lancaster's sports and exercise science degree means that you will be practiced at looking at issues from a multi-disciplinary perspective.

Lancaster University is dedicated to ensuring you not only gain a highly reputable degree, you also graduate with the relevant life and work based skills. We are unique in that every student is eligible to participate in The Lancaster Award which offers you the opportunity to complete key activities such as work experience, employability/career development, campus community and social development. Visit our Employability section for full details.

Fees and Funding

Fees

Our annual tuition fee is set for a 12-month session, starting in the October of your year of study.

Our Undergraduate Tuition Fees for 2019/20 are:

Tuition fees for programmes are set annually for all new and continuing students. If you are studying on a course of more than one year’s duration, the fees for subsequent years of your programme are likely to increase each year. Such increases are normally calculated based on increases in the costs incurred by the institution, or in relation to UK government regulations which set the maximum fee for certain categories of student.

For the majority of undergraduate students, the most recent annual increase was 2.8%. Any change in fee rates will be communicated to students and applicants prior to the start of the academic year in question, and normally at least eight months prior to enrolment. Further details can be found in our Terms and Conditions.

Channel Islands and the Isle of Man

Some science and medicine courses have higher fees for students from the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man. You can find more details here: Island Students.

Funding

For full details of the University's financial support packages including eligibility criteria, please visit our fees and funding page

Students also need to consider further costs which may include books, stationery, printing, photocopying, binding and general subsistence on trips and visits. Following graduation it may be necessary to take out subscriptions to professional bodies and to buy business attire for job interviews.