Physics BSc Hons - 2021 Entry

Course Structure

Lancaster University offers a range of programmes, some of which follow a structured study programme, and others which offer the chance for you to devise a more flexible programme to complement your main specialism. We divide academic study into two sections - Part 1 (Year 1) and Part 2 (Year 2, 3 and sometimes 4). For most programmes Part 1 requires you to study 120 credits spread over at least three modules which, depending upon your programme, will be drawn from one, two or three different academic subjects. A higher degree of specialisation then develops in subsequent years. For more information about our teaching methods at Lancaster please visit our Teaching and Learning section.

The following courses do not offer modules outside of the subject area due to the structured nature of the programmes: Architecture, Law, Physics, Engineering, Medicine, Sports and Exercise Science, Biochemistry, Biology, Biomedicine and Biomedical Science.

Information contained on the website with respect to modules is correct at the time of publication, and the University will make every reasonable effort to offer modules as advertised. In some cases changes may be necessary and may result in some combinations being unavailable, for example as a result of student feedback, timetabling, Professional Statutory and Regulatory Bodies' (PSRB) requirements, staff changes and new research.

Year1

Core

• Basic Physics Skills / Communication Skills

  This module is made up of both lectures and practical sessions, aiming to developing your communication skills through the preparation and delivery of a verbal presentation and written scientific report.

  The lectures will allow you to consider systematic approaches to problem solving including good methods in working and presenting answers, and in selecting and testing maths expressions in modelling.

  You’ll also develop a theoretical understanding of the basic principles of measurement and record-keeping, and will look at the best methods for assessing the significance of experimental data through consideration of uncertainties and statistical analysis.

  Your practical sessions develop your skills and awareness for implementing informed career decisions. You’ll also explore the need for ethical behaviour, both in the context of an undergraduate physics degree and scientific research in general.

• Classical Mechanics

  In Classical Mechanics students will apply the ideas of fundamental Newtonian mechanics to real large scale systems such as rotating bodies, planetary systems and classical fluids.

  The focus is on gravitation and its central importance in determining the large scale behaviour of the Universe. Concepts such as inertial and gravitational mass, Mach's principle, black holes and even dark matter will be explored.

  This module will consider how to extend the principles of basic kinematics and dynamics to rotational situations, giving students an understanding of concepts of torque, moment of inertia, centre of mass, angular momentum and equilibrium.

  Time will be spent looking at how to describe basic processes in the properties of materials including elasticity of solids and fluid dynamics.

• Complex methods

  This module provides an introduction to the concept of complex numbers and how they relate to applications in modelling physical ideas.

  You’ll begin by investigating the principle of complex representation, looking at real and imaginary numbers, complex conjugation, Argand diagrams and different representations of complex numbers, such as Cartesian, polar, and exponential.

  You’ll then develop skills in the manipulation of complex functions and the determination of the complex roots of equations. You’ll also consider physical applications, such as the use of complex methods in AC circuit analysis, the complex representation of harmonic waves, and the solution of differential equations describing damped oscillatory motion.

• Electric and Magnetic Fields

  Covering the basic laws of electromagnetism, this module allows students to investigate the similarities and differences between electric and magnetic fields, and to explore the basic concepts of electromagnetic phenomena including charge, current, field, force and potential.

  The module will begin by studying electrostatics, describing forces and fields due to charge distributions using Coulomb's law and Gauss's law. Students will also look at the concept of polarisation, and how this can be applied to capacitance and combinations of capacitors.

  Later on, the module will introduce magnetostatics, and students will learn how to describe it using the concepts of field, flux and force, and the motion of charged particles in a magnetic field. They will also look at the origins of magnetic fields, Ampere's law and Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.

• Electrical Circuits & Instruments / Practical Lab II

  This exciting module has practical emphasis. Through exploration of the effect of simple electrical components in DC and AC circuits you’ll build an understanding of the basic principles determining the behaviour of voltage and current in DC and AC circuits, and you’ll learn to quantitatively analyse circuits containing resistance, capacitance and inductance.

  Working in the laboratory, you’ll gain practical experience of using instruments and experimental equipment, and develop your skills in making experimental measurements, recording and analysing data, and report writing.

• Functions and differentiation

  Mathematical functions are used to describe physical phenomena and their graphical representation.

  This module is ideal for students wanting to gain a sound understanding of algebra, vectors and differentiation, and provides the tools needed for solving elementary equations involved in mathematical modelling, while strengthening problem-solving skills.

  During the course, you’ll consider the fundamental principle of differentiation, and its relation to the slope of a graph. You’ll also learn how to differentiate basic functions directly, and how to use systematic techniques for combinations of functions.

• Integration

  This module is ideal for students looking for a firm grounding in integration techniques.

  The module opens with an exploration of the fundamental principle of single-variable integration and its relation to the area under a graph. This allows us to directly integrate a variety of basic functions of one variable.

  You’ll then consider systematic techniques to tackle more complicated integrals of one variable including integration by parts and by substitution.

  Finally you’ll study the important basic integrals over lines, areas and volumes.

• Optics & Optical Instruments / Practical Lab III

  In this module you’ll be introduced to the principles of geometrical optics and will learn how to practically apply them to instruments and experimental equipment in a laboratory setting, giving you a practical reference for the physical principles discussed in your lectures.

  You’ll develop your understanding of commonly encountered optical phenomena, use geometrical optics to analyse optical systems, and understand the functions and basic principles of operation of some important optical instruments.

• Oscillations & Waves / Practical Lab I

  This exciting practical module on Oscillations and Waves allows you to investigate how wave and oscillatory phenomena arising in quite different areas of physics can be described in a very similar way, focusing in particular on the widely applicable model of simple harmonic motion.

  You’ll then learn to recognise the wave equation and will develop the ability to solve it for a general situation, to calculate appropriate physical parameters describing a wave, and understand universal wave phenomena such as interference, beats and wave packets.

  Part of this module is taught in the laboratory, giving you the opportunity to work with a wide range of measurement instrumentation. Through your practical work you’ll also gain an appreciation for the importance of uncertainties in experimental measurements and how to apply them in an appropriate manner.

• Quantum Physics

  The ultimate description of the Universe requires quantum and not classical mechanics. This module begins by investigating how specific experiments led to the breakdown of classical physics, before moving into the quantum world.

  Students will look at the basic ideas of wave mechanics, particularly wave particle duality, and will consider the probabilistic nature of phenomena and the uncertainty principle through the Schrodinger equation and its solution for simple situations.

  Other topics that will be studied include the photoelectric effect, the nuclear atom and single slit diffraction. Ultimately, the students will be able to apply their knowledge to modelling real phenomena and situations.

• Series and Differential Equations

  This module develops knowledge of series and functions as well as introducing ordinary differential equations and methods of solving them.

  You’ll first gain a good grounding in series and their formal representation, including geometric series, binomial expansion and the Taylor expansion. You’ll then learn to describe the representation of functions by series, using trigonometric and exponential functions.

  In the second part of the module you’ll explore differential equations and their role in physics, including separable first order differential equations, second order differential equations for conservative systems and the method of integrating multiplier. As part of this you’ll also look at physical examples such as driven systems, harmonic force and the phenomenon of resonance.

• The Physical Universe

  In this module students will have the opportunity to explore the nature and methods of physics by considering the different scales of the Universe and the areas of physics which relate to them.

  They will model real phenomena and situations, looking at the physical principles which are fundamental to mechanics, particularly Newton’s laws relating to forces and motion, and the principles of the conservation of energy and momentum.

  Later on, the Special Theory of Relativity will be the main focus, beginning with Einstein's postulates and moving on to inertial reference frames, the physics of simultaneity, length contraction and time dilation, and space-time diagrams.

• Thermal Properties of Matter

  This module focuses on the study of the thermal properties of matter, during which students will gain an understanding of how to relate them to the fundamental mechanical properties of systems.

  It will begin with an introduction to the concepts of temperature and heat, thermal equilibrium and temperature scales. Then students will look at how to describe mechanisms of heat transfer, particularly in phase changes, equations of state and the kinetic model of an ideal gas.

  As part of the module students will also have the opportunity to explore the first and second laws of thermodynamics, including concepts of internal energy, heat and work done, heat engines and refrigerators, and entropy. They will then learn about the role of thermodynamics in describing macroscopic physical situations, looking in particular at temperature, entropy, work, heat, and internal energy.

• Vector Calculus

  This module is ideal for students looking to develop their understanding of vector algebra and coordinate geometry in a physical context, extending elementary ideas of functions and calculus to a three-dimensional description based on vector fields and potentials.

  You’ll begin by exploring the real functions of many variables and their partial derivatives, followed by implicit differentiation of the functions of many variables and the chain rule. You’ll then go on to study the gradient vector in three dimensions in relation to directional derivatives, and will investigate the divergence and curl of a vector field as well as Stokes' theorem and the divergence theorem.

  Vector Calculus places a focus on calculus in higher dimensional space, allowing you to develop your knowledge of parametric representations of curves, surfaces and volumes, calculation of areas and volumes including the use of changes of variables and Jacobians, and the calculation of line and surface integrals.

• Vectors & Vector Algebra / IT Skills

  This module will introduce you to the methodology of vectors and vector algebra, including their application to three-dimensional motion, during a series of lectures and practical sessions.

  You’ll learn to recognise the orthogonality of the dimensions of space and use vectors to describe them; demonstrate a facility with the techniques of vector algebra, including the use of vector products; and be able to apply this knowledge to modelling real phenomena and situations.

  The practical element of the course sees you working in one of our PC labs learning how to best utilise spreadsheets and symbolic computations, and how to present data.

Year2

Core

• Electromagnetism, Waves and Optics

  This module provides students with a working knowledge of electromagnetion through Maxwell’s equations using the tools of vector calculus. Students will become familiar with the common connections between the many different phenomena in nature that share the mathematical model of a harmonic oscillator or of a wave. This module addresses the basic properties of wave propagation, diffraction and inference, and laser operation.

  Students will develop an appreciation for the power of vector calculus and Maxwell’s equations for the description of electromagnetic phenomena, and will gain practical knowledge of Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction, as well as thin-film interference fringes and anti-reflection coatings. Additionally, the module aims to enhance students’ understanding of the origin of polarisation, and the relevance of dichroism, along with an understanding of the basic elements of a laser, laser operation and important features of laser light.

• Experimental Lab I

  This module introduces a list of eight experiments which will be published prior to the first session. Students are required to write a report on one of their completed tests, and through undertaking eight experiments, students will learn fundamental skills of measurements, uncertainties and the use of standard instruments.

  By completing this module, students will demonstrate a practical understanding of experimental investigations, which involves accurate and thorough record keeping along with skills in critical analysis, presentation of results, and minimisation of experimental errors. Students will acquire knowledge of various experimental techniques and will learn how to identify, estimate, combine and quote experimental errors.

• Experimental Lab II

  This module requires students to reinforce and apply their experimental skills, developed in the introductory module Experimental Lab I, to assignments that are usually open ended. Students will complete experiments involving an element of choice in method and apparatus.

  Students will gain a range of skills including the organisation and execution of experimental investigations through accurate and thorough record keeping, and will strengthen their skills in critical analysis and discussion of results. Additionally, students will gain experience in application of a methodology to a variety of experimental techniques and will enhance their knowledge in identification, estimation and combination of experimental errors.

• Experimental Lab III

  This module is a further expansion to the skills developed in previous modules, Experimental Lab I and II. Students will reinforce their abilities in organisation and execution of experimental investigations, and will produce accurate and thorough record keeping. This module aims to enhance students’ skills in critical analysis and discussion of results along with knowledge in the identification, estimation and combination of experimental errors. Students will learn to apply techniques to one or two extensive investigations.

• Maths I

  Designed to provide students with a working knowledge of the basic mathematical techniques that are required when studying physics at degree level and beyond, this module’s range of topics include a look at linear algebra, where students will discover coupled linear equations, linear transformations and normal modes of coupled oscillators. A section on Hilbert space will address wave equation, bases of functions and Kronekker delta-symbol, and angular harmonics will be covered in detail.

  Over the duration of the module, students will become familiar with Pauli matrices, eigenvalues, eigenvectors and commutation relations, and will develop a range of skills and techniques required for solving various common types of linear equations. Additionally, a workshop led by postgraduate teaching assistants will be held every two weeks to provide extra one-to-one tuition and support with coursework assignments as required.

• Maths II

  This module introduces the Fourier series and transforms, and addresses their application to examples in physics. Students will learn how to express a periodic function as a Fourier series, and find the Fourier transform of a function.

  Additionally, students will solve linear ODEs and PDEs using Fourier techniques, as well as developing the ability to solve problems with initial conditions and/or spatial boundary conditions.

• Quantum Mechanics

  Students will be introduced to various axioms for quantum mechanics, such as eigenvalues, diagonalisation, differential and matrix operators and commutation relations. They will also learn about rotations and angular momentum, the interaction of magnetic moment with static magnetic field and electron spin. Students can expect to investigate approximation methods, such as the time-dependent Rayleigh-Schrodinger perturbation theory, and time dependent interactions, including the Heisenberg picture and time dependent Hamiltonians.

  Students will learn to apply quantum mechanics to problems in one and three dimensions, including the hydrogen atom, by solving the Schrödinger equation, and will develop the ability to find approximate solutions for not exactly solvable systems. The module will enhance students’ understanding of expectation values and probabilities in the context of experiments on quantum systems, along with an appreciation for the mathematical consistency of quantum mechanics.

• Relativity, Nuclei and Particles

  Students receive an introductory concepts-based approach to the module, giving a basic understanding of nuclei and fundamental particles. The module covers the general properties of nuclei, such as composition, the forces within the nucleus, mass and binding energy. Students are then introduced to the standard model of particle physics, including the three generations of fundamental particles.

  By the end of the module, students will gain a working knowledge of Einstein’s theory of special relativity, both conceptually and mathematically, and will understand why the theory has replaced Newton’s concepts of absolute space and time. Additionally, students will develop a broad understanding of the equivalence principle and its relevance for general relativity.

• Scientific Programming and Modelling Project

  Introducing programming basics, this module engages students with the writing and compiling of computer programs in Python that can be used for numerical simulation and data analysis. This will involve variable types, input and output, and mathematical functions. Students will become familiar with debugging: the identification and classification of programming errors, and will explore method arguments and signatures, in addition to gaining knowledge of one dimensional, multi-dimensional and passing arrays.

  Students will gain the necessary knowledge to model simple physical systems using appropriate programming techniques, and will develop an understanding of numerical precision and accuracy. By learning Object Orientated programming, students will use objects and methods to represent physical systems, class design, class testing and documentation in order to independently complete an open-ended project to model a physics-based problem.

• Thermal Properties of Matter

  This module provides a review of thermodynamic equilibrium, temperature, zeroth law, reversible and irreversible processes, as well as heat, work and internal energy. Students will be introduced to the Boltzmann distribution and apply the Boltzmann distribution to solids, paramagnetism, heat capacity, defects in solids. The module offers students the opportunity to explore crystal structure and symmetry, lattices, symmetry operations and unit cells. Students will investigate the quantum mechanical free electron model and basic band structure ideas in nearly free electron and tight binding pictures as part of the module.

  Students will develop an appreciation for the connections between the microscopic and macroscopic pictures of the thermal properties of solids, and will gain the skillset required to account for some fundamental properties of solids in statistical terms. Additionally, students will become familiar with the use of thermodynamic potentials and associated thermodynamic relations, and will gain an awareness of the different kinds of phase transition and how they are classified. Finally, students will gain the necessary knowledge required to understand the evidence for the third law of thermodynamics and how it relates to the unattainability of absolute zero.

Year3

Core

• Atomic Physics

  This module introduces one-electron atoms and the spin-orbit magnetic interaction, along with identical particles and the Helium atom. Students will investigate the Fermi gas model and the single particle shell model, and will compare predictions of the shell model for nuclear spins, parities and magnetic moments with experimental results. The module explores the nuclear beta decay process and the Fermi and Gamow - Teller selection rules, and students are provided with a description of the beta decay rate and the electron energy spectrum in terms of a nuclear matrix element and a statistical factor.

  Students will develop their knowledge in atomic and nuclear physics to an advanced level, and will be able to use the results of basic quantum mechanics to explain the basic characteristics of atomic and nuclear structure, in addition to gaining the ability to describe the processes of atomic transitions and nuclear decays. The module will provide an explanation of the concept and importance of the parity of an atomic or nuclear state, and will provide students with the opportunity to study the nuclear beta decay process and in particular the neutrino and parity non-conservation.

• General Physics Examination Paper

  Students will be examined on material in core physics modules from year one, two and three. There will be a series of workshops in the Lent term, prior to the final examination, for discussion about the types of question set on the examination paper and the revision of problem solving and modelling techniques.

  The module examines basic physics principles by applying them in situations that span the specific modules used to teach the course. This module will allow students to demonstrate a broad grasp of physics principles. Ultimately, students will be well practised in the application of physics methodology to a wide range of specific problems.

• Industrial Group Project

  This dissertation module provides students the opportunity to study in depth a topic in physics which they have. Where possible, there will be a link to the subject of the final year project. The preparation of the dissertation will involve considerable use of Library facilities for directed literature searches of research material. The completed dissertation will be word-processed and students will be expected to master software packages for the presentation of results and figures.

  Students will be required to use information retrieval and storage systems, and will be expected to gather, assimilate, organise, understand and summarise relevant information in order to write a scientific document which contains reference to the sources, reveals a structured view of the subject, conveys some understanding and summarises the topic. Students will develop the ability to defend the written presentation orally if required, and thereby give further evidence of understanding.

• Low Temperature Physics Laboratory

  This module provides an introduction to low temperature experimentation. Students will learn how to perform experiments and use cryogenic liquids safely, and will discover some of the basic physics investigated in the experiments, as well as receiving a tour of the ultra-low temperature physics laboratory. Some of these experiments include a paper exercise to design an experimental cryostat insert for experiments at 4K, an experimental investigation of the suitability and use of thermometers over the temperature range from room temperature to near 1K and an experimental study of the novel second sound mode (temperature wave) in superfluid 4He.

  Students will devise and perform any additional measurements which they think might give further insights into the physics investigated, before writing a formal report on one of the experiments. Additionally, students will gain the ability to recognise and discuss the properties of superfluids and superconductors.

• Particle Physics

  The module explores symmetries, the Quark model and gives an introduction to QCD. Students will explore leptons, as well as forces and their carrier particles and Feynman diagrams. The module aims to provide a general introduction to theoretical and experimental topics in elementary particle physics, essentially the Standard Model of particle physics.

  Students will gain the ability to describe the main features of the Standard Model of particle physics and understand its place in physics as a whole, and will be able to identify major pieces of experimental evidence supporting the key theoretical ideas, including the experimental techniques used, such as accelerators and detectors. In addition, students will understand the role of symmetry and conservation laws in fundamental physics, and will develop the ability to perform calculations of physically observable quantities relevant to the subject, along with solving problems based on the application of the general principles of particle physics.

• Particle Physics Group Project

  This module will provide guidance on project management, planning and meetings. There will be a planning stage in which groups of students will assign the roles of the team members, perform initial research and develop plans in terms of tasks, deliverables and timing including a Gantt chart. Plans will be presented to the rest of the class in a group presentation, with feedback given by the lecturer. At the end of the project, groups will prepare a group report and give an individual talk at the third year mini-conference.

  Students will develop skills in the safe use of nuclear detectors and sources, and will undertake an open-ended investigation of a particle physics-based problem. The module also aims to introduce students to the tasks associated with a research project in particle physics,

  Use nuclear particle detectors and sources, with the aim to develop a research project with formulation, literature searches, data gathering, analysis and presentation.

• Semiconductor Physics Laboratory

  Students will be introduced to the physics of semiconductors through a series of experimental investigations. This module provides an opportunity for students to write an individual report on one of the experiments conducted, which may include band theory and/or relation to optical and electronic behaviour of solids. The Shockley-Haynes experiment, transport properties drift and carrier lifetime will be covered in the module, in addition to topics such as important semiconductors, impurities and both direct and indirect band gaps.

  By the end of the module, students will understand the basic principles of semiconductor physics and related semiconductor physics. They will be able to demonstrate the main techniques of optical spectroscopy and reinforce their knowledge of various physical concepts involved in the description of solid state behaviour. Students will also become acquainted with some of the most important types of semiconductors through working with Si, Ge, GaA and will gain a practical understanding of semiconductor properties, in addition to acquiring basic spectroscopy experience. Students will also apply concepts of band theory to analysing optical and electronic properties of common semiconductors.

• Solid State Physics

  The module offers an introduction to reciprocal lattice and diffraction of waves, the electronic band structure in metals, and insulators and semiconductors. Students will explore electrons in semiconductors, effective mass and the heat capacity of solids. There will be a Summary of experimental phenomena, tunnelling, Josephson Junctions and an outline of BCS theory.

  Students will be introduced to theoretical and experimental topics in solid state physics at an advanced level, and will develop an understanding of the main features of the physics of electrons in solids, along with knowledge of the main features of the optical properties of solids.

  Students will gain an enhanced understanding of crystal lattices and phonons, along with the main features of the thermal properties of solids, and will be able to describe major pieces of experimental evidence supporting the key theoretical ideas, including the experimental techniques used.

• Statistical Physics

  This module explores the ideas, techniques and results of statistical physics. Students will examine gases and the density of states, along with the statistics of gases, fermions and bosons and the two distributions for gases. Maxwell-Boltzmann gases, velocity distribution and fermi-Dirac gases are investigated as the module provides an uncomplicated and direct approach to the subject, using frequent illustrations from low temperature physics.

  Students will provide a unified survey of the statistical physics of gases, including a full treatment of quantum statistics, gaining a fuller insight into the meaning of entropy. Students will gain knowledge in applications of statistics to various types of gas. Ultimately, students will develop the ability to apply expressions and distributions in order to form accurate deductions, for example using the Boltzmann distribution for the probability of finding a system in a particular quantum state. Additionally, students will learn the role of statistical concepts in understanding macroscopic systems, and will be able to describe superfluidity in liquid helium, Bose-Einstein condensation and black body radiation.

Optional

• Astronomy

  This module provides students with a modern perspective on the Universe, including its size and structure. Students will investigate electromagnetic radiation and will gain an understanding of telescopes and their limitations. The module will also present basic ideas of orbits, Kepler's Laws and common astronomical phenomena in the Solar System which are orbit related.

  Additionally, students will make various observations on the structure of the Sun, and will develop their knowledge of distant objects, including different types of galaxies, interacting galaxies, active galaxies and exotic objects, whilst contrasting historical models of the Universe.

• Computer Modelling

  Building on the skills developed in the Scientific Programming and Modelling project, this module will introduce students to new elements of Java, and will involve more sophisticated modelling of physical systems, such as calculating the range of a cannon ball, and simulating the motion of the moon around the earth.

  Students will develop a more thorough knowledge of the java language, including the use of inheritance, and will be able to write a physics modelling program in java.

• Energy

  The module introduces students to energy demand in the past, present and future, looking at energy use by sector and country. Students will study thermal power stations, nuclear power and take a planetary view of energy sources. From there, the module moves to renewable energy, costing energy and looking at Hydrogen as a fuel for the future. Students will consider energy use in the home and at work, looking at energy efficiency and alternative small-scale energy sources.

  By the end of the module, students will gain a broad overview of energy and the issues involved from a physical basis, and will be able to clearly explain the physics of energy and global warming and make an informed contribution to the debate.

• Flavour Physics

  The module will cover various topics including CKM matrix and its parameterisations; unitarily constraints and the unitarity triangle and the status of experimental measurements, theory and observations of neutrino oscillations. Students will also study CP violation and current topics of heavy flavour physics, such as c- and b-hadron production and decay analysis, along with top quark physics.

  Students will develop a basic knowledge of the phenomenology of flavour mixing in the quark sector, neutrino oscillations and will gain an awareness of the concepts of transformation, invariance and symmetry and their mathematical descriptions. Additionally, students will reinforce their understanding of the basic ideas, concepts and analyses of the experimental data on flavour mixing in weak interactions of hadrons and neutrino oscillations, in addition to gaining knowledge of some current topics on the physics of heavy flavours which are likely directions of the experimental particle physics research in Lancaster.

• Groups and Symmetries

  The module will cover various topics, such as symmetries and transformations; groups, group invariants and generators. As well as this, students will learn about irreducible representations; orthogonal groups O(2) and O(3); unitary groups SU(2) and SU(3) and applications to spin, isospin, colour and flavour of elementary particles.

  By the end of the module, students will have a basic knowledge and understanding of the concepts and methods used in group theory. They will be able to apply these concepts and methods to problems in particle physics, cosmology and field theory.

• Lasers and Applications

  This module will address the necessary requirements for laser action, spontaneous and stimulated emission rates, Einstein coefficients, optical gain coefficient, and characteristics of the emitted light. Students will become aware of the different types of lasers, such as gas and solid state, semiconductor, dye, chemical and excimer lasers. Semiconductor lasers: homojunction, single and double heterojunction devices will be investigated, along with materials and operating requirements. The module explores fabrication methods, quantum well lasers, advantages and characteristics. There will be a focus on a range of applications including laser surgery, optical fibre communications, laser machining, pollution monitoring and remote sensing.

  By the end of the module, students will be familiarised with lasers and their applications, including the operating principles of a variety of different lasers. Students will understand the many uses of lasers in industry, medicine and the environment.

• Matter at low temperature

  The module begins by discussing what physicists mean by high and low temperatures, and looks at the different types of ordering that may occur as systems cool. Students will explore cryogenic techniques used for accessing such low temperatures are described, including the design of useful cryostats. Students will observe the new phenomena that occur when systems are cooled below room temperature and will consider electron pairing leading to the zero resistance of superconducting materials, the effect of magnetic fields, and the role of macroscopic quantum mechanical wave functions. The module provides an overview of the practical uses in superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs).

  The module seeks to explore a selection of fascinating phenomena that occurs when cooling matter to temperatures more than a million times colder than the familiar 290K of everyday life and observe the significance for both physics and technology. Additionally, students will appreciate the relation between temperature and order, will know how low temperatures are produced, including dilution refrigerators, and will also be able to describe the phenomena of superconductivity and superfluidity.

• Physics of Fluids

  Introducing continuum mechanics, this module focuses on body and contact force, global balance laws, and decomposition of the contact force into shear and pressure components.

  Students will explore static fluids, ideal fluids and the Euler equation. The module then examines Newtonian fluids, waves and the two-fluid model of plasmas.

  Students will be introduced to fluid dynamics and its applications within physics, and will develop an understanding of the origin, solution and application of Navier-Stokes equations, along with the wider applications of the Navier-Stokes theory to bio-, geo- and astrophysical systems. Students will also solve problems based on the application of the general principles of the physics of fluids.

• Physics of Living Systems

  This module focuses on what constitutes life. It explores the stability and synchronisation in complex and open interacting systems, entropy and information, and DNA as an information storage system. Students will investigate fundamental rate processes, ion channel mechanics and molecular diffusion and Brownian motion. In addition, cellular structure and function, along with membrane potential and action potential are studied, and the module examines the functioning of the cardiovascular system as an information-processing system and the interactions between cardiovascular oscillations and brain waves.

  Students will develop an awareness of how physical principles help to understand the function of living systems at various levels of complexity, as well as an appreciation that living systems are structures in time as much as structures in space.

  Ultimately, the module will equip students with the ability to explain the basic characteristics of living systems as thermodynamically open systems, in addition to teaching the physical principles of the functioning of a cell, how cells make ensembles (tissues and organs), and how they interact within larger biological systems. Students will then apply their knowledge of physics and mathematics to the understanding of basic principles of living systems – starting from a cell to the cardiovascular system and the brain.

• Quantum information processing

  The module consolidates the theoretical concepts of quantum information processing, exploring Dirac notation, density matrices and evolution, and entanglement. Students will also explore qubits, quantum algorithms, circuit design and error connection. In addition, the module will address trapped ions and atoms, Josephson junctions and quantum optics.

  By the end of the module, students will be familiar with the fundamental concepts of quantum processing, such as density matrices and the dynamics of quantum systems, and will be able to understand how these can be implemented in realistic devices. Students will learn about experimental implementation based on atom-optical realisations and realisations in the solid state, and will apply these to explore theoretical concepts that have a vast area of application in condensed matter physics and atom-quantum-optics.